Validity is important to the research process

Validity is important to the research process Sim and Wright, (2000:125) stated that, Validity relates to the truthfulness of data and requires independent knowledge of the true nature or magnitude of the entity. Clinical research scientists are much aware of the need for validity in their research. Validating the treatment is important to determine the efficacy of a treatment as well as effectiveness and the treatment provided and its outcome. It is learnt that in 1957, American Social Scientist Donald Campbell introduced the concepts of internal validity and external validity. The study has an internal validity, when the result of a study demonstrates the existence of a causal relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Campbell and Stanley, (1963) noted that the internal validity is the basic required accuracy for any experiment. On the other hand, the external validity refers to the extent to which the results of a study or the experiments are made applicable to the population from which the participant in the experiment is drawn. Similarly, as Thomas and Nelson, (1990) noted that the external validity is about the generalizability of the findings. The first part of this essay will discuss the concepts of internal validity and external validity, the causal effect of variables and extraneous variables with examples. In the second part, the essay will critically evaluate the implication of internal and external validity and their relationship. Due to word constraint this essay will focus only on the quantitative research. The experimental (explanatory) research concerned with cause and effect by its nature, internal validity can be discussed within the frame work of quantitative research. Furthermore, Thomas and Nelson, (1990) stated that the cause and effect can be determined by the use of good research knowledge to the experiment design. According to Judd, et al., (1991, cited in French, et al., 2001:16) the internal validity concerns the extent to which conclusions can be drawn about the casual effects of one variable on another. For example, the treatment or a cause (independent variable) such as moist heat which effectively relieves the symptoms of low back pain or an effect (dependent variable). Before establishing a cause-effect relationship, it is important to find the relationship between the treatment and the symptom. The argument is that when treatment is given, the relief in pain (outcome) is observed, but when no treatment is given no outcome is observed. This provides the evidence that, the treatment and the outcome are related. However, it does not provide the evidence that the particular treatment caused the outcome. Perhaps, it may be some other factor caused the outcome rather than the treatment. For example, if the subjects were on pain relieving medication and medication may be the confounding factor in relieving the symptoms of low back pain. If the pain relieving medication factors are not controlled, they will have a confounding influence on the independent variable which threatens the internal validity. However, sometimes it is important to emphasize that the confounding variables cannot be fully controlled. The researcher assumes that there is a casual relationship in the study and claims that, research findings have implication for other groups and individuals in other settings and time. These claims examine the external validity. Polit and Beck, (2008) stated that the external validity is a major concern in quantitative research where there is a diffic ulty in generalizing the result from controlled research settings to real clinical practice settings. For example, findings about a pain relieving treatment in a study of African women cannot be generalized to women in Australia. Finally, it is a researcher decision to design a study to enhance the external validity. The potential threats to the internal validity are history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical regression, selection error and mortality. Threats to the external validity are, selection, setting and time. A few threats are discussed in the following example. A randomised control trial study was conducted by Deyle, et al., (2000), to evaluate the effectiveness of physical therapy for osteoarthritis of the knee. The study concluded that a combination of manual physical therapy and supervised exercise yields functional benefits for patients with osteoarthritis of the knee and may delay or prevent the need for surgical intervention. Even though confounding variables were controlled in this study by using randomisation, treatment and placebo groups, the researcher could not overcome with the threats like maturation and other extraneous variables. During the intervention patients were also on medication and exercises. They were asked to contact the researcher after one year of the intervention for the feedback. The researcher failed to explain whether intervention caused the effect or the medication or due to result of the passage of time. Simultaneously this study lacks the generalizability due to the fact that patients had to have sufficient English language skills and were required to live within a one hour drive from the clinics. Portney and Watkins, (2009:162) stated that, extraneous variables can be controlled by the experimenter by manipulating the independent variable, by random assignment of subjects to the groups and by using a control or comparison group within the design. Masking or blinding is also be used in many quantitative research studies to prevent the bias and to strengthen the internal validity. The external validity can be strengthened by selecting the sample which represents the population and there by applying the findings to a broader group. Similarly in the representative of clinical settings where the study takes place and th e findings can be applied to strengthen the other settings. It was stated by Polit and Beck, (2008) that multisite study results are confident enough in attaining the generalizability, if the results have been replicated in several sites where the study involves a heterogeneous sample. The relationship between the internal validity and external validity refers to the famous researchers Campbell and Stanley, (1963) statement that, often external validity sacrificed if the researcher concentrates on the internal validity. It is learnt from the literatures that, many researchers have given importance to the internal validity in their studies. However, in an applied area of clinical research, the purpose is to improve the health of the public and it is also important that the external validity be emphasized and strengthened. It is true that, the researcher implements more control measures to increase the internal validity, the experiment will become more artificial and thereby the external validity suffers or decreases. Cronbach, (1982) argued that, if a treatment is expected to be relevant to a broader context, the causal inference must go beyond the specific conditions. If the study lacks generalizability, then the so-called internally valid causal effect is useless to decision makers. Polit and Beck, (2008) noted that there are many differences between the countries in methods of diagnosis and management, as well as important racial differences in susceptibility to disease and natural history of the disease. Differences between health-care systems can affect the external validity. In an article, Efficacy and Effectiveness Trials (and Other Phases of Research) in the Development of Health Promotion Programs Flay, (1985) proposes a model that emphasizes the internal and external validity at different stages of the research process and that would lead to the translation of research to practice. In a controlled experiment like randomized control trials of public health interventions, efficacy trials have a high internal validity but often have the liability of low external validity. But, effectiveness trials have a high external validity. Historically, researchers have tended to focus on maximizing the internal validity. The idea is that the inter ventions should work under highly controlled conditions than its implication to the different population groups, organizations, or settings. Similarly, Polgar and Thomas, (2008) noted that funding organizations and journals have tended to be more concerned with the scientific rigor of intervention studies than with the generalizability of results. The consequence of this emphasis on internal validity led to lack of attention to and information about external validity, which has contributed to the researchers failure to translate the study into the general population. Thus, the progress from efficacy trials to effectiveness trials has not become a reality because of the time and cost involved in the process of research to practice. As a result of the failure of this model, practitioners are often unable to determine whether the given studys findings can apply to their local setting, population or resources. However, there are several reasons for the lack of information on external va lidity being an important contributor to the failure to translate research into public health practice. Policy and administrative decision-makers are unable to determine the generalizability or breadth of applicability of research findings. In addition Hamersley, (1991) criticised that the distinction between the internal and external validity is fundamentally misleading because it reflects a failure to distinguish relations between events and relations between variables. Polit and Beck, (2008) noted that in the recent studies researchers are interested in promoting designs that aim to achieve a balance between internal and external validity in a single intervention study. Such practical (or pragmatic) clinical trials or studies attempt to maximize external validity with the smallest possible negative effect of internal validity. For example, Thomas, et al., (2006) conducted a study on randomised control trial of short course of traditional acupuncture compared with usual care of pe rsistent non-specific low back pain. The study concluded that referral to a qualified traditional acupuncturist for a short course of treatment seems safe and acceptable to patients with low back pain. However, the generalizability of this study finding rests on the assumption that participating acupuncturists, general practitioners, and patients in York are similar to those found elsewhere. According to Polit and Beck (2008), in health care research RE-AIM framework has been formed by Russell. E. Glasgow in 2006 to design and to evaluate the intervention research. It involves a scrutiny of five aspects of study like, reach, efficacy, adoption, implementation and maintenance. It may help in improving the generalizability of the research study or enhance the external validity. An Importance of an internal validity or the external validity is a controversial topic in the research community. Campbell and Stanley, (1963) stated that, a good study should be strong in both types of validi ty. The internal validity is indispensable and essential while the question of external validity is never completely answerable. In other words, Campbell and Stanleys statement implies that the internal validity is more important than the external validity. However a study with no external validity still found true relationship for the sample that was studied. For example, if the researcher conducts a study on Bangladeshi farmers in the Afghan region, the findings of the study cannot be generalize to the Chinese horticulturist in the Malaya region. But researcher still knows more about the Bangladeshi farmers. In conclusion, it is understood that, the internal validity and the external validity plays an important role in the scientific research. The internal validity establishes the truth about inferences regarding cause-effect or causal relationship. The external validity establishes the truth of conclusion that involve generalisation. As internal and external validity are fundamental to any experimental research, the researcher should aware of threatening factors. In quantitative research, the use of randomisation and the control groups reduces the threats to internal validity. Meanwhile, sample selection and settings in the research helps in controlling the threats to external validity. The strength of internal and the external validity of a study can help researchers to evaluate the relative importance of that study in an overall program of research. To balance the validity, researcher should conduct a study that emphasizes the internal validity (efficacy studies) and undertake effecti veness studies that emphasize the external validity. The internal validity and the external validity are important to building an evidence based study in the clinical research. A clear definition of concepts involved in the experiment not only ensures its validity, but also increases the chances that it could be used by other researchers wishing to carry out a follow-up or similar investigation.

Enterprise Data Storage Essay

Data Storage is generally divided into two; one is customer storage, which only uses typical disk drives, flash drives or local hard disk in PC or in laptop. While Enterprise Data Storage is the mainly use for large enterprise storage for big industry or company. The data that is being stored in this centralize storage comes from a variety of source, it can either come from customer transactions, that can come from the different parts of the globe, it can also include local data storage for development purposes, like these storage can hold data samples for integration testing and Users Acceptance Testing by both the development team and the customers respectively. Enterprise Data Storage is much prevalent in huge data centers, where amount of data running around the clock and these data are carefully stored and even backup properly. Data in these call centers is the most important one, more than anything, like the transaction report that happen between the customers and the call center agent, which in every end of each transaction, it will be stored in central database, where another team will automatically gets the information based on certain business process of the system, to actually addressed the issue, and so on and so forth. So this means that data in call centers are interconnected to many groups and that is why not even a small downtime is acceptable in their operation. To better implement effective enterprise data storage, there are four important factors must be considered: (1) storage, (2) backup, (3) archiving and (4) disaster recovery. In storage, this means that there should be enough storage capacity for all the transaction needed to run for all the entire systems and with ideal buffer systems in case there will be immediate need for additional space, next one is backup, it is already a common to all industries whether it is running in one server or in enterprise large type, backup plays a vital role in enterprise data storage, it does not only mean that regularly, based on scheduled task by the infrastructure team that the system will automatically backup it every 12MN of every day, but most importantly the importance of backup is to provide confidence to the company that data and information can be rolled back anytime if needed. Archiving is somehow, is something important for keeping both historical information, actually archiving does not work like as backup, archiving only happens in a certain period agreed by the management, and at this point not everything is being archived only those of high risk informat ion are being archived. Lastly, Disaster Recovery, these is also one of the most important use of enterprise data storage, that is to give confidence to the management and the whole company itself, that the company can still perform and no expectation of stop operation will happen, if problems encountered in the systems used by the company or faced with some unexpected events like fire, earthquakes, etc. (Enterprise Data Storage, n. d. ). Data Storage Industry and where it is going Data Storage Industries have earlier predicted that there are five most important information management and data storage trends for 2006. The first one was compliance; compliance talks more on the process side on how technically and procedurally things should be done, in order to avoid misbehavior of the company systems. It also provides a better deal of quality and reliability for the system to work better, since there are already set guidelines, and these guidelines where set after a series of study made and those where also the important input to the compliancy requirements of each processes, that is why if everything will just be followed according to plan, there should be no problem. Secondly, is Security, you can say it can be both physical and data security, for physical security these are the tangible component of your data systems, from the smallest valued mouse or keyboard up to the most critical enterprise servers that you keep in the company, which is important to secure these physical component of your company systems. Data security is still one of the most prevalent problems nowadays, with network access given to everyone, which definitely needs anyway in performing their job, there will still be problems about data security, the only way to combat this problem is to have a constant monitoring daily, actually if possible there should be either systems that will monitor this problems like firewalls, data encryption systems, and even tailored made mapping system fro each users or teams must be strictly be applied. Third, is Integrated backup, here it is simply better backup procedure and archival must be well implemented, like better naming convention and other systematic practices must be applied, Fourth is Virtualization, which also one of the top priority in 2006, this actually means the implementation of state of the art network system that will provide a smooth and faster networking from all the different locations where the company is operating, factors like bandwidth, virtual memory and transfer rate of speed, which is vital in transferring data within the network. Lastly is ECM or Enterprise Content Management, which continues to be one of the biggest challenge to all industry or company, because here we are actually looking at the importance of documentation and keeping it within the company systems, from the simplest how the different systems works, customer manual and up to company policies and procedures that in order to have a better grip of their job, these should be well stored in central repository and from there anyone can easily gets it through the network. (Top Five Information Management & Storage Trends for 2006, n. d. ). Actually, Enterprise data storage industries are continually giving big impact for the company, with the growing demand for data storage, most especially at this point we are now working globally like the existence of call centers worldwide, and that makes enterprise data storage becomes vital. Because in Data Centers, we are not only talking about one server but multiple servers running around the globe, which you can see, setup is like per country, but if you have purchased a enterprise data storage server that are really huge, the implementation can be by geographical zone, like one for Asia Pac, North America, Europe, etc. Lynx Technologies is one of the well known companies that specialize in enterprise data storage products, includes backup/recovery and business continuity implementation which is important for compliancy of the company. The main focus of the company is combining effective networking infrastructure and enterprise data storage solutions. From data storage hardware requirement, data storage management software, secure data storage. Some of the main data storage, for its disaster recovery includes on-line backup and data backup software. And lastly for its compliance service it includes HIPAA/ Sox Data Security. Limitation of local data center that only safe keeps the data storage that runs in the local network, the trend that was being look on to and continue to be a strong importance in the future is more on not only Total data Storage Backup but also must include and prepare to have the recovery solutions, which uses Enterprise Level Onsite Data Storage, and Remote Offsite Data Storage Solutions. Remote or Offsite data storage is one of the best service for data storage by enterprises that works very often outside their company network, and since you are detached and you need to be connected to your company network, this product provides you immediate access and with that, because of the speed of transfer on your data, it can provide your customer and yourself better appreciation on the system. It is also a very cost effective solution for all business partners, staffs and other stakeholders because they can easily work even not connected to their local company network. And with the big capacity and networking efficiency of this solution, which is the most critical part of the business at this time. In the future, what the industry looks onto is more on convenience and accessibility is being look onto, where people can work at home and students can attend to open university, and with that they only need to securely connect online through wireless connection and from there they can easily get a grip of the information needed. Upon using online data storage or remote data storage, it will not just easily be implemented right away because there should be compliance check on this before it will be implemented. The compliance is being conducted by HIPPA or Sarbanes Oxley. The following major impact to the industry is reliable and immediate availability to data and information in different strategic location, as well as easy deployment of application for the target customer. (Enterprise Level Onsite (Online) Data Storage, & Remote Offsite Data Storage Solutions, n. d. ). HP also has provided a good support on the future requirement of enterprise data storage. HP it is the primary storage or data deduplication will be the future of most industry. Active research and study for these technology movers in the future of data storage is being conducted at the company, and this will be the common data storage trend for all data storage industry in 2009-2010. Alongside with it there will also be encryption process that would separately take place, which will also be the part of the feature for data storage on the future. Another HP prediction is the integration of its high end applications with data storage, meaning putting their application on a high scale level. Specific integration like in search engines for faster processing. And since data warehousing is also gaining popularity and great acceptance by most companies at the present the need for scalable data storage will also be an immediate need, because having to implement that would make presentation and downloading of reports in a front end-system like with that of using portal technology will be faster and easy. Since the creation of application, development of databases and managing business intelligence tool and datawarehosuing will be in one very powerful enterprise data storage also includes the effective implementation of networking infrastructure, you can say that customers will no longer ask for more and sure enough satisfaction rating will really be high. (Pariseau, Beth, 2007). Next is CISCO, and this time, it will be how the look of a large call centers see how enterprise data storage works. Data Centers for Call Centers have greatly impacted the change in the industry not only storage requirements, which obviously increasing, but almost every factors in Information Technology it is impacted a lot. Actually there are two important aspects, Technology applied, and Data Centers Storage and Servers. To start with, Technology applied, for CISCO as one of the most well known and trusted name in their field, the implementation of VOIP, which makes it very effective and convenient in combining data and voice in one cable. One of its products SRST or Survival Remote Site Telephony which is used to protect the voice in case of server network failure. Data Centers Storage and Servers, in a typical data center, it is actually almost different types of server and data storage running for a typical call center that runs global support. For SAN or Storage Area Network, Most of the well trusted storage used is EMC and HP. The data center has production servers, where all application is installed for the customer to use and access. It also connects to hundreds of host to their data storage server. Which means that, many applications on the web or in client server applications that are being hosted by the enterprise data storage server and with that the enterprise data storage server hold critical data which all of the application gets and stored or even backup. The SAN is made up of CISCO’s MDS multi layer switches. SAN has greatly improve and utilize the storage resource. And, since it is used for large data centers, with multiple servers, it hold 2 Petabytes or a huge 2 quadrillion bytes of data, which even the numbers are hard to count. With this capacity you can say that it is a good example and direction for all enterprise data storage industries should be. Another one is the Tape Backup Storage, this is used for backup of important and necessary records or data. It’s primary purpose if to be on standby backup. This is actually designed to support the critical systems, that whenever there will be problem in the main site, this will be placed as the data storage to be used. (Data Center Storage and Servers, 2004).

The Absolute Best Plan You Need to Be Using for Essays on Social Issues

The Absolute Best Plan You Need to Be Using for Essays on Social Issues Essays on Social Issues and Essays on Social Issues - The Perfect Combination A composition is completely based on reality. You're expected to compose because manner that every phrase you write, delivers a completely various influence on the composition. Long-term use may lead to heart troubles, mental disorders and higher blood pressure. It leads to liver and kidney failure. Bad communication between parents and teens Lack of communication between kids and parents, particularly during teenage years is also an additional causality of drug usage. Handling things without help isn't a profitable choice for students. The issue is more than only the wellness of the teenage mom and the baby but it is going to also invite emotional and societal stresses to the mother. When selecting your social problems topic, try to remember that it's always much better to write about something you're already more or less a cquainted with. The Good, the Bad and Essays on Social Issues To get started composing an in depth essay, decide on the topic you're likely to be explaining. Recent argumentative essay topics that are related to society is going to do. Don't forget to include a minumum of one citation to back up your conclusions. Examine the model essay and read the comments. You will write a more powerful paper, and your professor will be in a position to realize that you can do more than regurgitate the literature. Some professors wish to create a useful and selecting a wellness essays. Therefore, many students and employees decide to purchase low-cost essay rather than writing it themselves. The shortage of very good support sources are going to result in a decrease grade. Critical thinking skills permit us to think about an issue from many sides. The good' fight against despots and to curb the development of extremist terrorists has made a lot of hot spots on earth. Another reason is to observe how well students argue on unique views and demonstrate understanding of the studied subject. Get the Scoop on Essays on Social Issues Before You're Too Late When you compose a social issue essay, it is crucial to clearly show your private view of the issue. For a social issue to be classified as an issue, it has to be getting attention from the general public. The immigrant issue is a popular issue on earth today. Introduce the problem you prefer to research and analyze. When you are given a task to compose an essay on a social issue, you're given a chance to open an exciting discourse. A good example is the current worldwide warming crisis. To begin with, your essay is supposed to deal with a specific social, psychological or anthropological matter. Attempt to use conflict theory and include a minumum of one citation. There are a couple main things you will need to learn before you even begin picking social issues essay topics. You don't need to find super technical with legal argumentative essays, but don't forget to do your homework on what the present laws about your preferred topic actually say. As a student, you've got to decide on an excellent topic and gather information on it. When looking at a topic like this one. Deciding on your topic isn't that easy. Therefore, the topic ought to be debatable! Researching the topic permits you to find out more about what fascinates you, and should you pick something you truly like, writing the essay will be more enjoyable. Moral argumentative essay topics are a few of the simplest to get carried away with. Vital Pieces of Essays on Social Issues There's a growing number of commercial services that scrape social media media and after that offer paid-for access via simple analytics tools. For this reason, you must have an intelligent decision before it's too late and put money into silver depending on your capability to acquire great profits in future. As stated by the structural perspective, society is regarded as an elaborate system of structures that interact so as to carry out various necessary functions. It is vital in the modern-day times because the expansion of the company gives employment opportunities for the overall public.

Does Congress Have Too Much Power Over Commerce Essay

Does Congress Have Too Much Power Over Commerce? Works Cited Missing Narrow construction is not found in the Constitution, but the powers granted to Congress to regulate commerce are found. Exactly stated, â€Å"Congress shall have power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes.† This clause has no definite interpretation, but has included many aspects of regulating. The word â€Å"commerce† is defined as the exchange or buying and selling of commodities on a large scale involving transportation from place to place (Webster 264). Congress has exercised this delegated power in many cases. The nature and basic guidelines of Congress’ power over commerce is first laid out in the case of†¦show more content†¦A controversy arose between Ogden, who had obtained the license from Fulton and Livingston, and Gibbons, who had obtained his license through the United States government. Ogden petitioned the New York Court to â€Å"enjoin† Gibbons, his formal partner, fro m continuing with this business in that state. The Court favored Ogden and granted the injunction and Gibbons appealed to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court upheld the right for Congress to have vast powers. According to the Supreme Court, Congress can regulate who can enter into a monopoly and this case made a distinction between interstate and intrastate within a state. Although the federal government has not been specifically delegated the power to regulate commerce within a certain state that does not mean that the federal government cannot regulate a states commerce. When the Commerce Clause has a broad interpretation, intrastate regulations are often included. Commerce is more than just buying or selling; it is intercoursing, which according to this case does include such stipulations as navigation. Interpreting commerce in a broad sense has thus established what is known as a Federal police power. Police powers refer to or identify the inherent authority of the state govern ment to regulate individually liberty, freedom for health and welfare and safety. The Federal government does not have police power, but it can be seen as evidence in this case how the FederalShow MoreRelatedEssay on Does Congress Have Too Much Power over Commerce?2350 Words   |  10 PagesConstitution, but the powers granted to Congress to regulate commerce are found. Exactly stated, Congress shall have power to regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes. This clause has no definite interpretation, but has included many aspects of regulating. The word commerce is defined as the exchange or buying and selling of commodities on a large scale involving transportation from place to place (Webster 264). 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